Called to stay? The moderating roles of feedback from others and role clarity in the relationship between experiencing a calling and organizational embeddedness
Muehlhausen, J., Spurk, D., Hirschi, A., & Sandmeier, A. (2023). Called to stay? The moderating roles of feedback from others and role clarity in the relationship between experiencing a calling and organizational embeddedness. Career Development International, 28(2), 160-179. https://doi.org/10.1108/CDI-06-2022-0167
Abstract
Purpose – Organizational embeddedness of employees who are experiencing their work as a calling is of high relevance. Understanding what promotes staying in organizations can provide benefits for individuals with a calling while at the same time helping organizations to retain those valuable employees. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate how and when experiencing work as a calling relates to organizational embeddedness (OE). Based on assumptions from the theory of work adjustment (TWA), the authors hypothesized a conditional effects model with feedback from others and role clarity as moderating variables.
Design/methodology/approach – For this longitudinal study, the authors collected data at two measurement time points (N 5 553). To tests the hypotheses, the authors performed hierarchical regression analysis. Additionally, the authors conducted simple slope tests to calculate the effects of calling on OE, depending on the different levels of the moderators.
Findings – The results indicated that higher levels of experiencing a calling are associated with higher levels of OE 18 months later while controlling for the initial levels of OE. Additionally, the moderation analysis revealed that feedback from others and role clarity strengthened the relationship between experiencing a calling and OE. Interestingly, for individuals with low feedback from others and low role clarity, experiencing a calling was not related to OE.
Originality/value – Addressing recent research calls that highlight more research on boundary conditions and diverse theoretical perspectives, this study contributes to the literature on calling and organizational retention and provides a more individual and career-related view of potential predictors of OE.
Keywords: calling, organizational embeddedness, feedback from others, role clarity, employee retention, theory of work adjustment
Profiles of Calling and Their Relation to University-to-Work Transition Outcomes
Zhang, C., Hirschi, A., Li, M., & You, X. (2021). Profiles of calling and their relation to university-to-work transition outcomes. Journal of Career Development. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069072720931010
Abstract
In this study, we adopted a person-centered approach using latent profile analysis to explore whether profiles of calling based on the internal and external sources of a calling are identified and how these profiles relate to successful university-to-work transition outcomes (i.e., higher career satisfaction, higher person-job fit, and lower turnover intentions). We assessed a sample of 684 Chinese university graduates one week before and six months after graduation and found five profiles of calling: Strongly undeveloped calling, moderately undeveloped calling, transcendent calling, highly transcendent calling, and modern calling. We found that a calling which was driven by internal and external sources (i.e., transcendent calling) or predominantly by internal sources (i.e., modern calling) related to more successful university-to-work transition outcomes. Our findings contribute to the literature on calling by showing that the sources of calling are important to conceptualize different types of calling and differentiate the role of different callings.
Keywords: Calling profiles, sources of calling, university to work transition, latent profile analysis, career satisfaction
Forget about the money? A latent profile analysis of calling and work motivation in Chinese employees
Zhang, C., & Hirschi, A. (2021). Forget about the money? A latent profile analysis of calling and work motivation in Chinese employees. Career Development International. https://doi.org/10.1108/CDI-12-2019-0294
Abstract
Purpose – Calling is typically associated with more intrinsic than extrinsic work motivation.
This could give the impression that employees with a calling do not need or care about external rewards. To deepen the understanding of the relationship between calling and work motivation, we tested how calling is combined with different types of work motivation and how such combinations affect work outcomes differentially.
Design/methodology/approach – We applied latent profile analysis among Chinese employees with diverse occupations (N = 1,290) to identify calling and work motivation profiles and test their relations with work outcomes, assessed four months later.
Findings – Four profiles emerged: externally motivated low calling, moderately externally motivated calling, moderately motivated calling, and highly motivated calling. Employees with weaker and stronger callings indicated being extrinsically motivated for work. Employees in the highly motivated calling profile exhibited highest job satisfaction, lowest cynicism, and lowest turnover intentions, followed by employees in the moderately motivated calling profile, the moderately externally motivated calling profile, and the externally motivated low calling profile.
Implications – Our findings imply that employees with a strong calling do care about external rewards and also benefit from external incentives to work.
Originality/value – This study is the first to explore the differential relationship between callingZhang, C., & Hirschi, A. (2021). Forget about the money? A latent profile analysis of calling and work motivation in Chinese employees. Career Development International. and work motivation. Moreover, our findings offer insights regarding the under- researched notion that different types of calling predict work outcomes differently.
Keywords: Calling profiles, work motivation, external motivation, latent profile analysis, job satisfaction
Article classification: Research paper
Trajectories of calling in the transition from university to work: A growth mixture analysis
Zhang, C., & Hirschi, A., & You, X. (2020). Trajectories of calling in the transition from university to work: A growth mixture analysis. Journal of Career Assessment. doi: 10.1177/1069072720931010
Abstract
Research on the development of calling is still in its infancy and rarely focused on how calling changes during a major career transition. The current study examined the developmental trajectories of calling and their relation with personality (i.e., conscientiousness, proactive personality) in the transition from university to work with a three-wave longitudinal study with 340 Chinese graduating university students. Results based on growth mixture modeling indicated three developmental trajectories of calling: high and stable calling (23% of sample), high but decreasing calling (74%), and low and increasing calling (3%). Moreover, higher conscientiousness related to a higher chance of being classified into the high and stable calling trajectory. These findings add notable insights to the literature by exploring the previously neglected developmental trajectories of calling and their association with personality in the transition from university to work.
Reciprocal Relation Between Authenticity and Calling among Chinese University Students: A Latent Change Score Approach
Zhang, C., Hirschi, A., Dik, B. J., Wei, J. & You, X. (2018). Reciprocal relation between authenticity and calling among Chinese university students: a latent change score approach. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 107, 222-232. doi: 10.1016/j.jvb.2018.05.005
Abstract
It is common to hear that following one’s “true self” is an important means to find a calling, yet no study has directly examined this possibility. In this study, we investigate the change pattern between authenticity and calling. Specifically, we conducted a three-wave longitudinal study with 459 Chinese university students over one year and examined the reciprocal dynamic relationship between authenticity (i.e., authentic living, self-alienation, and accepting external influence) and calling. Results of a bivariate latent change score model examining within- individual changes over time showed that increases in authentic living were positively correlated with increases in calling, while increases in self-alienation and accepting external influence negatively correlated with increases in calling. We also found that higher levels of calling predicted less decrease in authentic living. However, higher levels of authentic living significantly predicted a decrease in calling over time. Our findings contribute to the literature on calling by suggesting a dynamic change pattern of authenticity and calling among Chinese university students.
Keywords: Calling, authenticity, authentic living, accepting external influence, latent change score model
Calling as a double-edged sword for work-nonwork enrichment and conflict among older workers
Hirschi, A., Keller, A. C., & Spurk, D. (2019). Calling as a double-edged sword for work-nonwork enrichment and conflict among older workers. Journal of Vocational Behavior. doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2019.02.004
Having a calling has been linked to various positive outcomes, but the potential negative effects of having a calling have not yet received comparable attention. Moreover, research thus far has neglected to examine how callings affect the work–nonwork interface. Based on the work–home resources model, and work–family enrichment theory, we presumed that having a calling can increase as well as deplete personal resources at work, which, in turn, promote work–nonwork enrichment and conflict among older workers. We investigated these assumptions among 599 employees, aged between 50 and 60 years, by examining within-individual changes in presence of calling, positive affect at work, workaholism, work–nonwork enrichment, and work–nonwork conflict over a period of one year, with two measurement points. Results indicated that an increase in the presence of a calling was positively related to increased levels of positive affect at work, which, in turn, was positively related to increased work–nonwork enrichment. However, an increase in the presence of a calling was also positively related to increased workaholism, which was positively related to increased work–nonwork conflict. The findings suggest that having a calling is meaningfully related to the work–nonwork interface among older workers in both positive and negative ways.
Living one's calling: Job resources as a link between having and living a calling
Hirschi, A., Keller, A. & Spurk D. (2018). Living one’s calling: Job resources as a link between having and living a calling. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 106, 1-10. doi: 10.1016/j.jvb.2017.12.001
Abstract
Recent research on calling has pointed to the important distinction between having and living a calling in order to explain the positive effects of callings on well-being. However, how the link between having a calling and living a calling might be explained has only been partially addressed. In the present study, we focused on the neglected role of workplace characteristics as key factors in this regard. In a sample of 232 working adults in Germany, we established that presence of calling and living a calling were significantly related to job resources in terms of decision-making autonomy, task significance, and social support at work. Moreover, presence of calling and living a calling positively related to level of education, leadership position, and salary. Testing indirect effects with bootstrapping analyses, we found that job resources, specifically decision-making autonomy and task significance, partially mediated the relation of presence of calling with living a calling, while controlling for educational level and leadership position. The results support the idea that living a calling is not just about finding work that fits one’s calling. People who have a calling are also more likely to live their calling by working in jobs with more job resources.
Keywords: Presence of calling; living a calling; work characteristics; job resources
Access free PDF
The future work self and calling: The mediational role of life meaning
Zhang, C., Hirschi, A., Herrmann, A., Wei, J., & Zhang, J. (in press). The future work self and calling: The mediational role of life meaning. Journal of Happiness Studies, 1-15, doi:10.1007/s10902-016-9760-y
Abstract
Research on calling prevailingly focuses on the positive effects on well-being and career development. However, explorations of the predictors and emergence of callings are sparse. We tested a model in which clarity about the future work self promotes one’s sense of calling through increased life meaning. We sampled 473 Chinese college students with a three-wave panel design over 1 year. Using time-lagged analysis, we found that the future work self at T1 significantly predicted increased life meaning at T2, which, in turn, significantly predicted increased calling at T3. This indirect effect was significant and supported the hypothesized longitudinal mediation model. The reverse effects of one’s calling as a predictor of self-clarity about one’s future work life or life meaning were not confirmed. Our findings suggest that among Chinese college students, self-clarity about one’s future work life and understanding one’s life meaning are two important steps in the development of one’s calling.
Competitive climate and workaholism: Negative sides of future orientation and calling
Keller, A., Spurk, D., Baumeler, F., & Hirschi, A. (2016). Competitive climate and workaholism: Negative sides of future orientation and calling. Personality and Individual Differences, 96, 122-126, doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2016.02.061
Abstract
The perception of a competitive climate at work creates stress, uncertainty, and a desire to outperform colleagues. In this study, we investigated whether a competitive climate is associated with increased workaholism. Furthermore, we assumed that especially employees with a future orientation and a presence of a calling will show more workaholic behavior when a competitive climate is present. Hierarchical regression analyses among 812 employees in Germany confirmed our hypotheses: Competitive climate was positively related with workaholism and was stronger related to workaholism under conditions of high future orientation and high calling. These findings suggest that contextual factors at work and individual factors interact to form workaholism. Our results may be explained by the experience of more uncertainty in competitive work climates for individuals with high future orientation and the presence of a calling. Consequently, these employees may invest more physical and cognitive efforts into their work to cope with the competition.
Self-directed career attitude as predictor of career and life satisfaction in Chinese employees: Calling as mediator and job insecurity as moderator
Zhang, C., Hirschi, A., Herrmann, A., Wei, J., & Zhang, J. (2015). Self-directed career attitude as predictor of career and life satisfaction in Chinese employees: Calling as mediator and job insecurity as moderator. Career Development International, 20(7), 703-716. https://doi.org/10.1108/CDI-06-2015-0090
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to test if the effects of a self-directed career attitude on career and life satisfaction are mediated by a person’s sense of calling and moderated by job insecurity in a sample of Chinese employees.
Design/methodology/approach – Among a sample of Chinese employees (n = 263), in this paper, a moderated mediation analysis with bootstrapping was applied to test the hypotheses.
Findings – The results showed that calling mediates the effects of a self-directed career attitude on career satisfaction and life satisfaction. Job insecurity moderated the effect on life satisfaction but not on career satisfaction. The effect on life satisfaction were stronger under higher levels of job insecurity.
Research limitations/implications – These results suggest that a self-directed career attitude may help people develop a calling, which in turn relates to increased subjective career success and well-being. In addition, the notion of a calling may be especially important for well-being in unstable job circumstances.
Originality/value – This study is the first to explore a calling and a self-directed career attitude in a sample of Chinese employees. Corresponding to contemporary China’s rapidly changing context of economy and career development, a self-directed career orientation plays an important role in Chinese employees’ calling and subjective career success.
Keywords: Calling, Job insecurity, Life satisfaction, Self-directed career attitude, Subjective career success
Assessing calling in Chinese college students: Development of a measure and its relation to hope
Zhang, C., Herrmann, A., Hirschi, A., Wei, J., & Zhang, J. (2015). Assessing Calling in Chinese College Students: Development of a Measure and Its Relation to Hope. Journal of Career Assessment, 23(4), 582-596, doi: 10.1177/1069072715595804.
Abstract
Research suggests that perceiving a calling towards a particular career is relatively frequent among college students in Western cultures. However, little is known about how this applies to other cultural contexts. This study assessed the perception of career as a calling in the Chinese culture. Study 1 reports the development of the Chinese Calling Scale (CCS), based on a sample of 788 Chinese college students, and identifies three dimensions of a calling: Altruism, Guiding Force, and Meaning and Purpose. Measurement invariance across gender is supported by the CCS. In Study 2, the convergent and criterion validity of the CSS is examined based on a sample of 387 college students. The CCS is strongly related to an existing calling measure and moderately related to life meaning and life satisfaction. Study 3 examines the relation between calling, hope, life meaning, life satisfaction, and career decidedness among 518 college students. The findings reveal that hope significantly mediated the relation of calling with career decidedness, life meaning, and life satisfaction. In summary, this study provides a new scale to assess calling in Chinese culture and is the first to explore how calling relates to dispositional hope.
Calling and career preparation: Investigating developmental patterns and temporal precedence
Hirschi, A., & Herrmann, A. (2013). Calling and career preparation: Investigating developmental patterns and temporal precedence. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 83(1), 51-60. doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2013.02.008
Abstract
The presence of a calling and career development are assumed to be closely related. However, the nature of and reason for this relationship have not been thoroughly investigated. We hypothesized the existence of reciprocal effects between calling and three dimensions of career preparation and assessed the change of the presence of a calling, career planning, decidedness, and self-efficacy with three waves of a diverse sample of German university students (N = 846) over one year. Latent growth analyses revealed that the intercepts of calling showed a significant positive correlation with the intercepts of all career preparation measures. The slope of calling was positively related to those of decidedness and self-efficacy but not to planning. Cross-lagged analyses showed that calling predicted a subsequent increase in planning and self-efficacy. Planning and decidedness predicted an increase in the presence of a calling. The results suggest that calling and career preparation are related due to mutual effects but that effects differ for different career preparation dimensions.
Callings and work engagement: Moderated mediation model of work meaningfulness, occupational identity, and occupational self-efficacy
Hirschi, A. (2012). Callings and work engagement: Moderated mediation model of work meaningfulness, occupational identity, and occupational self-efficacy. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 59(3), 479-485. doi:10.1037/a0028949
Abstract
Scholarly interest in callings is growing, but researchers’ understanding of how and when callings relate to career outcomes is incomplete. The present study investigated the possibility that the relationship of calling to work engagement is mediated by work meaningfulness, occupational identity, and occupational self-efficacy—and that this mediation depends on the degree of perceived person–job fit. I examined a highly educated sample of German employees (N 529) in diverse occupations and found support for 2 of the 3 hypothesized mediators—work meaningfulness and occupational identity—after controlling for the relation of core self-evaluations to work engagement. Contrary to expectations, the mediated relations of callings to work engagement were not conditional upon the degree of person–job fit. The findings are considered in terms of the pathways through which callings may relate to work engagement and other career development outcomes.
Keywords: calling, work engagement, work meaningfulness, occupational identity
Vocational identity achievement as a mediator of presence of calling and life satisfaction
Hirschi, A. & Herrmann, A. (2012). Vocational identity achievement as a mediator of presence of calling and life satisfaction. Journal of Career Assessment, 20(3), 309-321. doi:10.1177/1069072711436158
Abstract
The present study explores what mechanism might be responsible for the reported link between presence of a calling in one’s career and life satisfaction. It is proposed that vocational identity achievement acts as one important mediator of this relation and that the effects can be observed even when controlling for core self-evaluations (CSEs). The study used a short-term longitudinal design based on a sample of 269 German college students from different majors. The results con firmed the mediation model, with calling predicting vocational identity achievement 6 months later and identity serving as a stronger predictor of life satisfaction, all controlling for CSEs. However, contrary to previous research, presence of calling was not directly related to life satisfaction and even showed a negative relation when vocational identity achievement was controlled. The results are interpreted to suggest a multifaceted relation between calling and life satisfaction.
Keywords: calling, vocational identity, core self-evaluations, career development
Callings in career: A typological approach to essential and optional components
Hirschi, A. (2011). Callings in career: A typological approach to essential and optional components. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 79(1), 60-73. doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2010.11.002
Abstract
A sense of calling in career is supposed to have positive implications for individuals and organizations but current theoretical development is plagued with incongruent conceptualiza tions of what does or does not constitute a calling. The present study used cluster analysis to identify essential and optional components of a presence of calling among 407 German undergraduate students from different majors. Three types of calling merged: “negative career self-centered”, “pro-social religious”, and “positive varied work orientation”. All types could be described as vocational identity achieved (high commitment/high self-exploration), high in career confidence and career engagement. Not defining characteristics were centrality of work or religion, endorsement of specific work values, or positivity of core self-evaluations. The results suggest that callings entail intense self-exploration and might be beneficial because they correspond with identity achievement and promote career confidence and engagement while not necessarily having pro-social orientations. Suggestions for future research, theory and practice are suggested.